TJ
IC-N
GIFT OF
r 'U
Henry Disston^ Sons
Incorporated
Keystone. SawlooLSted 'and 'File Works
PHILADELPHIA
THE FILE
Its
History, Making, and Uses
A description of the develop-
ment of the file from the earliest
times to the present day; a brief
statement of the modern method
of file making; a description of
the great variety of files and the
numerous uses to which the tool
is adapted.
It is hoped that those who
read this description of the de-
velopment and uses - of the file
will come to appreciate better
the importance of the tool and
to value it more highly.
COPYRIGHTED
FIRST EDITION, DECEMBER, 1920
SECOND EDITION, NOVEMBER, 1921
BY
HENRY DISSTON & SONS INC.
Keystone Saw, Tool, Steel, and File Works
PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A.
HENRY DISSTON
"H
E created a new American
industry. He gave to the
United States the greatest saw
works in the world, and thus founded
an industrial university wherein a
dozen useful trades are taught. Not
only did he redeem us from all de-
pendence on foreign countries, but
turned back the tide and made them
accept his products, and this simply
by peaceful demonstration of superior
skill in manufacturing."
FOREWORD
There are few tools more essential
in the development of industry than
the file. Perhaps for the very reason
that it is so universally used and so
absolutely indispensable, the file does
not commonly receive the attention it
deserves, as a tool, from craftsmen
and students.
This book is dedicated to those
innumerable men to whom the file is
an everyday friend and a necessity —
the tool which enables them to dp
more and better work with less labor.
There has been no guide for the
compilation of the material in this
book. Information has been obtained
from every available source. It is
possible, therefore, that the wide
circulation of the book will bring to
light some omissions, which, we hope,
will be passed with tolerance in view
of the difficulties attending the com-
pilation of the facts.
5078IG
STONES USED BY ANCIENT PUEBLO INDIANS FOR
POLISHING AND STRAIGHTENING ARROW SHAFTS
(See Page 6)
THE FILE
ITS HISTORY, MAKING,
AND USES
ALTHOUGH the history of
the file can be traced back
into the remote past, its age
is by no means as great as
the saw. Scientists believe, in fact,
that the artificial file was a natural
development from the saw, the
notched edges of stone and metal
implements leading to the invention
of a tool having teeth for abrasive
purposes.
Abrading instruments, while dat-
ing from many centuries before
Christ were at first composed of
some natural substance which
might be said to have ground off
the surface rather than to have cut
it, as do the files arid rasps of today.
As in many other things, Nature
herself has taken precedence over
man in the origination of files..
There is a type of mollusc having ai
rough tongue with which it rubs or
files through the shells of othei
molluscs on which it feeds. The
wasp, also, has a rasp-like organ
with which it abrades dry wood,
afterwards mixing the dust with a
glutinous saliva to form the paper
from which it builds its nest. The
cat's tongue, and that of the cow,
are familiar examples of abrading
organs in the animal kingdom.
Prehistoric man made handles for
his weapons by sawing or splitting
wood, rough-shaping the pieces as
well as he could by primitive meth-
ods, and finally finishing and pol-
ishing them by means of the partic-
ular abrasive material found in his
vicinity. A remarkable connection
between these ancient times and
the most modern, is found in the
present-day use of sandpaper and
emery cloth. These are only a mod-
ified form of the first stone abrading
instruments used by primitive man,
proving that many of our primor-
dial instincts are still existent.
There are few of us, in fact, who
have not, at some time in our lives,
scraped up sand with a shell, or
used a stone to drive a nail — both
survivals of the Stone Age, and
illustrating man's intuitive employ-
ment of the things Nature placed
ready to his hand.
To abrade, or file, ancient man
used sand, grit, coral, bone, fish
skin, and gritty woods, — also stone
of varying hardness in connection
with sand and water.
Crude as were these abrading in-
struments, and slow and laborious
as must have been their use, they
nevertheless served primeval man
well throughout the Stone and
Bronze Ages. Up to the time of
the discovery of iron, natural abra-
sives were used extensively. Cop-
per, and later, bronze, did not per-
mit of sufficient hardening to be
used as a material for the making
of artificial files, although attempts
were made to use both for that pur-
pose.
M. Adrien de Mortillet, in his
classification of prehistoric tools,
gives first place to cutting tools,
and second to rasping tools, which,
of course, include the file and rasp,
thus showing the importance of the
file since earliest times. And yet,
with its important standing, there is
a remarkable scarcity of both his-
tory and relics as compared with
other examples of the handiwork
of man.
Strange as it may seem, the
North American continent has
yielded more examples of the na-
tural files of the ancients than any
The Ffile }In^^toi^\ \ \ ...:
other part of the globe. Among
the Mound Builders and Cliff Dwell-
ers of America, those ancient and
prehistoric peoples of whose com-
ing and going so little is known,
stones were used for abrading pur-
poses. Although both races left
traces of their familiarity with cer-
tain kinds .of metal, from which
they made tools, ornaments; and
other articles, neither race, appar-
ently, was acquainted with the artifi-
cial file. Nothing of the kind has
ever been found, so far as is known,
but several examples of the stone-
file have been unearthed.
Fig. 1 shows one of these stones
which was found in a Mound Build-
ers' cemetery in Tennessee. From
the peculiar grooves in this stone
it would appear that it had been
used for smoothing arrow shafts.
Early Indians
Used Abrasive Tools
The ancient Pueblo Indians, who
inhabited the Calisteo Basin in
Western North America, left,
among many other crude tools and
pieces of pottery, specimens of
stone which archaeologists say were
also used to smooth and polish
arrow shafts. Some of these are
preserved in the American Museum
of Natural History in New York.
Three good examples of these
stones are shown in Fig. 2 (frontis-
piece). The material appears to be
soft sandstone, of varying grades
of fineness, in which deep grooves
have been worn by drawing them
along the wooden shafts. As proof
of this use, it may be said that
Eskimos of the Arctic regions
today use stones to smooth and
sharpen their spear-heads. Captain
George Comer while on an expedi-
tion in the far north secured a speci-
men of stone, pictured in Fig. 3,
which was used like a file by the
natives. It measures about eight
inches in length, one and a half
inches in width, and three-quarters
of an inch in thickness.
It is discoveries such as this that
have greatly aided scientists in un-
raveling the tool mysteries of the
earth's early inhabitants. In fact,
study of the customs and tools
of the savages of today give a very
clear idea of the tools used, and
the manner of making those tools,
in prehistoric times. The South
Sea Islanders, for instance, aptly
illustrate this, — for, in these days
of wonderful tool development,
they are still using pieces of coral
as rasps.
The remarkable resemblance
between the tools used in bygone
ages in different parts of the earth,
and by dissimilar peoples, occa-
sioned much comment in the past,
but the modern scientist has real-
ized that, as Major Powell, the
great ethnologist, once said: "The
mind of man is everywhere the
same; the difference of its products
are evidences of differences of
growth, or different conditions of
environment." In other words,
man's progress has depended solely
upon his needs and what was at
hand to progress with. His inven-
tive tendencies, once aroused, de-
veloped along parallel lines — limited
only by the material and facilities
for carrying them out. Implements
are more or less alike because man's
Pig. 1. — Filing stone from the Mound
Builders' Ruins in Tennessee.
[6]
$tie', F$e> fn History
needs are alike. This in itself would
cause a similarity of tools the world
over.
In spite of a civilization claimed
to antedate that of the East, the
development on the Western Hem-
isphere in ancient times did not
used, many still clung to their stone
tools. This is believed to have been
especially so with the poorer classes
who could not afford the more
costly metal implements. Indeed,
it is well known that in the mines
of Spain and Sardinia stone ham-
Fig. 3. — Stone used as a file by the Nectchillic Eskimos
seem to go beyond a certain point.
So, while we find the earliest speci-
mens of the file on the American
continent, we must turn to the
Eastern countries for the beginning
of what we have termed the artifi-
cial file.
Evolution
Of The Ages
The Stone Age, with its natural
files, slowly gave way to the Age of
Copper, and this in turn to the
Bronze Age. Tools, weapons, and
other articles found a wider devel-
opment with the coming of these
metals, but, as stated before, the
file is a tool of exceedingly rare
occurrence in copper or bronze,
though not absolutely unknown in
deposits belonging to the close of
the Bronze Age. It is sometimes
difficult to place the dates or ages
of many stone and metal imple-
ments found among the ancient re-
mains, for Europe remained far
behind Asia in this particular for
many years. In 2500 B. C., while
all Asia shared in the knowledge of
Bronze, Europe was still in the
Stone Age. Then, too, long after
metal was fairly well known and
mers were in use during historic
times.
Of prehistoric files recovered, the
greater number have been of bronze
from the "hoards" of that period.
A "hoard" is a deposit or collection
of bronze objects. Investigators
have found them in many places
all over Europe — several ancient
cemeteries appearing to have been
favorite hiding places.
The theory of these "hoards" is
that they were used as storage
places, and were sometimes the
property of individuals, sometimes
of traders, and sometimes of bronze
founders. The latter surmise is de-
rived from the fact that many of
the "hoards" contained broken and
worn tools, lumps of metal, and
moulds for casting, as well as num-
erous perfect tools.
In a prehistoric cemetery at Hall-
statt, in upper Austria, an imple-
ment of a very hard grayish alloy
was found. This was believed to
have been an anvil, and with it was
found a bronze file. In fact, several
files of bronze, and one of iron,
have been found in this same ceme-
tery. The bronze files are from five
to ten inches long. A few of these,
while flat for the greater part of
[7]
The Ftie In $ia(6r^\ \ i ^
their length, are drawn down • for
about two inches at the end into
tapering round files. In a "hoard"
found in Bologna were several frag-
ments of files, including one of a
half-round file.
Sir William Wilde states that he
found among a collection of bronze
tools in the Museum of the Royal
Irish Academy, a "bronze circular
file, straight, like a modelling tool."
The early form of file is much
the same as that of a very broad
saw, the toothing coarse, and run-
Fig. 4. — File from the prehistoric lake-
dw.ellings of Switzerland.
ning at right angles across the
blade. A very good illustration of
this is the iron file found in the re-
mains of prehistoric Lake-Dwell-
ings in Switzerland. Fig. 4, giving
an outline of this file, is taken from
Munro's "Lake-Dwellings of Eu-
rope.'' Note the well-defined tang.
With the ancients, Crete was
famed for the skill of its people in
working metal. It had become a
well-known art there before the
people of the North knew anything
of metal. Among the earliest
known examples of the artificially
made abrading instruments of
metal, for which a date can be
fixed, is a bronze file (see Fig. 5)
which was dug up in Crete by an
expedition from the University of
Pennsylvania, and is now in the
Museum at Candia. This file has
a rounded back and a flat surface
for rubbing. The astonishing like-
ness to the half-round file of today
will be noticed at once. It is be-
lieved to have been made about
1500 B. C. Its length is 3^ inches,
width y% of an inch, and thickness
1A of an inch.
Fig. 5. — Ancient bronze file from
Crete.
Rasps Used
1200 Years B. C.
The Egyptians of the Lisht
Dynasty, about 1200 to 1000 B. C.,
made small rasps of bronze, as sev-
eral specimens have been found
which could be more or less ac-
curately connected with that time.
These rasps are shown in Fig. 6.
They are 1^ to 2*4 inches in
length, and appear to have been
made from sheet bronze. Holes
were punched through the metal
with a sharp-pointed instrument. It
was then coiled into the form of a
cone-shaped cylinder with the
rough edges or projections of the
holes on the outside. These acted
as the teeth. It is uncertain what
these crude rasps were used for.
The softness of the material must
have made their use extremely lim-
ited. Some suggestion, however,
may be obtained from another rasp
Fig. 6. — Bronze rasps used by the
Egyptians 1200-1000 B. C.
[8]
The Fifo 'In* History
of a somewhat similar nature which
was found in the Rammesseum in
Egypt. This little rasp, about two
inches long, and a half inch thick
at the base, is made out of sheet
copper with holes punched as pre-
viously described. In fact, refer-
ence to Fig. 7 will show that these
rasps, found at different times and
places, are very much alike. As
is found in I Samuel: xm: 21, which
is supposed to relate to about the
year 1093 B. C. This reads:
"They had a file for the mattocks,
and for the colters, and for the
forks, and for the axes, and to
sharpen the goads."
The word "file" here is the in-
correct rendering of "petsirah pirn,"
which means notching of the mouth
Fig. 7. — Copper rasp found in the Rammesseum,
Egypt.
the Egyptians in the Rammesseum
used to work in gold it may safely
be surmised that this little rasp was
probably used in a manner similar
to the jewelers' rasp of today. The
rasp shown in Fig. 7 is now in the
Museum of the University of Penn-
sylvania.
These rasps may have had a
wooden handle inserted in them.
While no trace of such handles was
found, -this supposition arises from
the curious resemblance between
these rasps and those made by the
American Indian of more or less
modern times which will be de-
scribed later. As the Bronze Age
is believed to have been at its
height about 4000 years before the
Christian Era, we may safely as-
sume that bronze files were in use
long before these specimens just
described.
That there were iron files in Solo-
mon's time may be inferred from
his statement: "Iron sharpeneth
iron; so a man sharpeneth the
countenance of his friend," but the
first historical mention of artificial
files that can be definitely identified
as referring to such implements as
are now understood by this term
or edge of tools, i. e., to remove the
bluntness or dullness (and so
sharpen the edge) of these agricul-
tural implements by abrasion in
consequence of the lack of smiths
to sharpen them by forging out the
points.
Files are also mentioned in
Homer's Odyssey. They were
doubtless very crude in form and
inefficient in operation as compared
to present-day files, but the fact
that they were mentioned in these
early writings is proof that they
were held in high esteem by work-
men of ancient times.
As both of these citations refer
distinctly to the use of files in metal
working, it is quite apparent that
the ancients knew how to make use
of these tools for much the same
purposes as they are most fre-
quently employed today, viz,, the
fitting and finishing of metal work.
Wood finishing, as practiced by
prehistoric man, and his immediate
successors, was easily accomplished
by the use of natural abrasives, but
cutting implements with sharp
teeth were required when tools and
weapons came to be constructed of
iron.
[9]
The F$
Evidence Of Iron
In The Early Ages
The date at which iron first
became known to the early races
of man is still a matter of dispute.
A Chinese, Fuh-he, records in that
extraordinarily ancient volume, the
"Book of Historical Documents,"
that he accidently smelted iron
when clearing forests about 3200
B. C. The blue color used in de-
picting knife blades in drawings on
the tombs at Thebes, Egypt, would
seem to indicate that it was known
among the Egyptians as early as
1565 B. C. Remarkably fine speci-
mens of early iron work, however,
Fig. 8. — Assyrian file, made in the
7th Century, B. C.
have been taken from the ruins of
Memphis and Thebes. As 'these
cities are so old that their origin is
lost in the remote past, the knowl-
edge and use of iron might even
have existed at a much earlier
period. The Greeks are supposed
to have known iron before the
foundation of Troy in 1537 B. C.
Their poetry, fables, and mythol-
ogy contain many references to
iron. Homer tells us that at the
siege of Troy the leaders and great
heroes carried swords of bronze,
while the common soldiers were
armed with iron weapons. In spite
of the fact that the Greeks are sup-
posed to have known and worked
in iron before the foundation of
Troy, Dr. Schliemann, in his book
"Illios," claims that files were not
used in the cities of Troy and My-
cenae. During all his explorations
he found absolutely no trace of
them at these places. We read that
David, about a thousand years
before the Christian Era, "prepared
iron in abundance for the building
of his temple."
That the people of India knew of
iron at an exceptionally early date
is proved by their skill in working
the metal long before the Christian
Era. At one of the gates of the
temple of Katub, near Delhi, is a
wrought iron pillar 23 feet 8 inches
high above the ground. Its total
height, however, is believed to be
about 60 feet. It is 16.4 inches
across at the base and 12.05 inches
at the top. Its weight is estimated
at seventeen tons. A Sanskrit in-
scription places the date of its erec-
tion in the tenth century before
Christ. While no definite date can
be set, it is certain that the knowl-
edge of the manufacture of iron
spread from Asia into Europe.
Daimachus, a writer who was
contemporary with Alexander the
Great (about 300 B. C.), enumerates
four different kinds of steel and
their uses. The Chalybdic, Syno-
pic, Lydian, and Lacedaemonian.
From the latter, he states, were
made files, augers, chisels, and
stone-cutting implements.
The crucible method of melting
steel is one of the oldest forms of
melting iron and steel, being men-
tioned in all early writings.
As a matter of fact, the posses-
sion of iron weapons among nearly
all the races at this early time would
suggest the use of iron or steel
abrading instruments in their manu-
facture, but no examples can be
found. Even though they had ex-
isted, jt is highly probable that the
oxidizing action of the elements
would have destroyed them during
such a long lapse of years. There
is no doubt that the great bulk of
the objects of iron belonging to
antiquity have totally disappeared.
In proof of this disappearance of
iron and steel relics may be men-
tioned numerous cases where the
gold ornamentations of iron and
steel swords and helmets have been
unearthed while the sword or hel-
[10]
The File In History
met itself is only represented by a
slight trace of rust. Only in those
parts of the world where an ex-
tremely dry, sandy soil existed can
we find any relics. And even when
these are found, they have, in many
cases, become so thoroughly oxi-
dized that they crumble to pieces
on coming into contact with the air.
We touch at some length and de-
tail upon iron because the real be-
ginning of the modern file and rasp,
like many other things, must have
had its inception in this metal. Yet
with the beginning of the use of
iron and steel for the making of
files, both records and relics almost
disappeared. The file by that time
had become such an everyday tool
among artisans that few, if any,
writers thought it worthy of spe-
cial mention. At the same time, the
well-known corrosive qualities of
these metals, which we have just
touched on, gradually eliminated
practically all the early examples
of this kind of file.
First Iron Rasp
Made By Assyrians
The Assyrians, who were about
the first race to profit by the dis-
covery of iron, made a straight rasp
of iron .of which an excellent ex-
Fig. 9. — Indian rasp for
smoothing arrow shafts.
were in their tool making is further
proved by the investigations in
Egypt of Prof. Flinders Petrie. In
one of his books on that country,
he says:
"A set of iron Armourers' tools
was found at Thebes with a copper
helmet of Assyrian form, and there-
fore probably left by the expedition
under Asshur-bani-pal in 666 B. C.
These tools comprise flat chisels,
Fig. 10. — Indian rasp for boring out cane.
ample has been found. Reference
to Fig. 8 will show that the form
is exactly like that of modern times.
As this rasp definitely dates back
to the seventh century, B. C., it will
be seen how clever the ancients
were in originating tools which have
preserved their essential form down
to the present day.
How clever the Assyrians really
mortise chisels, saws, a punch, a
rasp, a file, a twist scoop, and two
center-bits. The forms of most of
these tools have already attained
to the modern types; but the file is
only slight and irregular, and the
center-bits are only fit for hard wood.
The edges of these tools are of steel,
probably produced by case-hardening
the iron."
[11]
The File In History
Fig. 11. — Examples of primitive files.
Early Uses
Of Tools
To illustrate the workings of the
primitive mind in various parts of
the world at different times, and to
give an insight into the methods
probably in use in very ancient
times, of which neither history nor
relics tell anything, we picture in
this article several peculiar forms
of files that are connected with
quite modern times. In Fig. 9 is
shown a rasp used by the American
Indians in making arrow shafts,
etc. This rasp, which is in the
Museum of the University of Penn-
sylvania, was obtained by them
from the Indians in 1908. It had
been in use for a considerable
period. The rasp is made of a
piece of sheet iron with holes
punched through. The sheet was
then bent over like a book cover,
with the rough edges of the holes
on the inside. The article to be
filed was run through the interior.
The use of sheet iron has only been
known to the Indians for about
eighty or ninety years, so it will be
seen that this rasp is comparatively
modern.
The Indians of later times made
a blow gun out of a species of cane
which much resembled bamboo. To
clear these out and smooth the
joints they had a special form of
rasp (see Fig. 10) mounted on a
long thin stick. This rasp, too, was
made by punching holes in a piece
of tin with a sharp instrument, and
then coiling the tin in a conical
form somewhat similar to that of
the ancient Egyptians, as illus-
trated in Figs. 6 and 7 on pages 8
and 9. As the Indians could have
no knowledge of the methods used
by the Egyptians several thousand
years ago, the similarity in these
rasps is striking.
Belden, in his book, "The White
Chief," gives several interesting
[12]
The File In History
12
13
1. Heavy rasp, blade 13 inches long, 1 inch wide. China.
2. Square file, 11 inches long, 5/16-inch square, cross cut on all four sides. China.
3. Pointed rasp with a curved face. Blade 14 inches long. China.
4. Smaller rasp, blade 7 inches long, cross section elliptical, but cut on only one
side. China.
5. Heavy wood rasp. Made of wood with 42 steel blades set into it. China.
6. Smaller wood rasp. Same character but with only 15 blades set in a straight
surface. China.
7. Knife-shaped file. The wide end is finely cross cut on both sides. The narrow
[13]
The File In History
end is flat on one side and curved on the other, cross cut on both surfaces.
China.
8. Small file. Blade only two inches long, one side flat, the other curved, cross
cut on both surfaces. China.
9. Crude hand-cut file from Indo-China.
10. Thin flat file, 8% inches long, 1^4 inches wide. Cut only on the edges on
both sides. China.
11. File with a thin diamond shape cross section, finely cut on all four sides.
Indo-China.
12. Small file, cross cut on the two flat faces, but not on the edges. Japan.
13. Dried tail of a fish, probably a Skate or Ray. used as a wood rasp. Yucatan.
14. Knife-shaped file, cross cut on both sides and single cut on the back. China.
15. Small file, blade thickest in the middle, finely cut on all four faces. Japan.
16. Rasp, single cut only about half the length of the blade. Indo-China.
descriptions of primitive tool-mak-
ing which still existed among the
Indians of North America in the
first half of the last century. Fol-
lowing is his description of the
process of making files:
"The most curious process was
making files and rasps. To do this,
an alderberry stick was taken and
split in two. The pith was then
scraped out, and into the groove
thus formed was poured glue mixed
with pounded flint. When dry, the
particles of flint formed the teeth
of the rasp or file. If the file be-
came dull, it was only necessary to
wash it in hot water, which re-
moved the top layer of glue and
worn flint, bringing new flint to the
surface. These files were very
handy and of vast use to the
Indians. What steel is to iron, they
are to the wood and stone used by
the Indians. When ponies' hoofs
Pig. 13. — Typical heads of ancient stone hammers.
(Courtesy Am. Museum of Nat. History )
[14]
The File In History
became too long, or splintered, they
were trimmed down by these rasps.
Axe handles, tepee poles, and iron
even were rubbed down with them."
Another primitive form of file
has also been brought from Aus-
China, Japan, and Yucatan are most
interesting. Fig. 11 shows some of
these files very clearly. In Fig. 12
is illustrated a number of old-time
primitive files from China about
which comparatively little is known,
Fig. 14. — Entrance to the Notre Dame Cathedral showing iron work on doors.
tralia. It was made by fastening
sharp fragments or plates of stone
to a stick by means of a tenacious
gum. It affords a good illustration
of the manner in which flint and
other flakes were mounted for use
as files by the early inhabitants of
Australia. This file is in the col-
lection of the Peabody Academy of
Science, Salem, Mass.
Interesting Collection Of
Files In Philadelphia
A most remarkable collection of
primitive files is preserved in the
Philadelphia Commercial Museum.
These come from all portions of the
globe, but those from China, Indo-
but their different forms and cuts
are interesting.
While this digression has brought
us for the moment to comparatively
modern times, it serves to illustrate
the extraordinary variations in tools
used at the same period, but in
widely different places, and shows
how difficult it is now to assign
regular progressive stages to the
development of implements and
weapons in early times.
In this connection, the remarks
of Mr. Wilfred H. -Schorr, Secre-
tary of The Commercial Museum,
relating to the collection in that
institution will be of especial inter-
est:
"These specimens in our collec-
[15]
The File In History
tion are all of comparatively recent
date, and their primitive character
is due simply to the fact that they
come from countries still in a primi-
tive stage of civilization. For that
reason, they illustrate, so far as
they go, earlier conditions in na-
tions now in a more advanced stage
of civilization. In actual time, we
do not suppose that any of the
specimens shown would be more
than thirty to thirty-five years old,
and a number of them, of course,
would be more recent.
"The progress of ethnological
knowledge is, necessarily, depend-
ent, in great degree, on modern in-
stances just such as these, of tribes
and races that have remained rela-
tively undeveloped, while other
races were becoming civilized, and
in that way any specimen of a
present-day primitive tribe is valu-
able as indicating what our own
ancestors may have been ten cen-
turies ago."
Until the beginning of the Chris-
tian Era even the blacksmith con-
tinued to fashion weapons and
implements of iron almost entirely
with a stone hammer, and no men-
tion seems to be made during this
exceptionally efficient. So, while
he used a variety of tools, he still
clung to his hammer as the chief
instrument of his trade. The black-
smith's hammer, in fact, remained
his most important implement for
many hundreds of years.
While slight mention is made of
files in medieval times — when they
must have seen their first great de-
velopment— we know that much of
the iron and steel work turned out
could not have been accomplished
without the aid of files.
During the Middle Ages, St.
Dunstan, a monk born in Glaston-
bury, England, who is considered
the patron of the blacksmith, pro-
duced many wonderful things, and
greatly aided in the improvement of
metal tools. While there is no
record to that effect, the nature of
his work would imply that the file
received sortie benefit from his ex-
traordinary genius. He died in 988.
Monk Wrote Book
On File Making
Another monk, Theophilus Pres-
byter, of the Benedictine Cloister,
Helmeshausen, gave to the world
Fig. 15. — Roman knife flies found at Tilehester,
Roman site, A. D. 43 to 300.
intermediate period of the use of several recipes for tempering iron
files. The rapid appearance in instruments. He also wrote a very
slightly later times, however, of iron interesting description of file-mak-
tools is shown by the discoveries
at Pompeii, where the only tools
of the present time which the black-
smith lacked were the vise and
metal-cutting saw. His files were
ing in Germany about the end of
the eleventh century. Among the
simpler forms of files which he men-
tions are those made of soft iron,
which were afterward hardened.
crude, and it is presumed were riot After the file had been forged to
[16]
The File In History
the desired form it was made
smooth by a plane and then pro-
vided with grooves and teeth. He
describes the hardening process
very clearly, and, curiously enough,
wanted to discover how the work
was done. Numerous theories were
advanced, one of which affirms that
the iron was cast, "and then treated
with a file." This shows that the
Fig. 16. — Half-round flies unearthed in London. Period unknown,
on the order of rasps.
They are all
it does not differ greatly from some
present-day methods.
The men who worked in iron,
and were the chief users of such
tools as files, had become at this
time the most important of the arti-
sans. A guild of blacksmiths was
formed in Florence in the thirteenth
century, while in England the
guilds of the blacksmiths were
started in 1434. It is only natural
to suppose that these men did much
to develop the efficiency of the file
in the course of their daily work.
The earliest point at which a defi-
nite thread in its history can be
regained is when the Notre Dame
Cathedral was built in Paris in the
thirteenth century. A smith named
Biscornette was employed to deco-
rate the doors of the great cathe-
dral with iron work. He performed
this work, which was wonderful
in its beautiful effects, secretly, by
a process known only to himself.
Bits of this iron were broken off
at various times by people who
file at that time was becoming a
necessary part of the smith's equip-
ment. It proves, too, that it must
have reached a very high state of
perfection to have enabled a man
to do such fine work in metal.
It was not until the fourteenth
century, however, that those who
practiced art in ironwork began to
use other tools, besides heat and
the hammer, regularly.
We read that "file and saw, vise
and drill were called to his (the
smith's) aid."
The use of these tools gave
greater command over the metal
as well as better results in the work.
This, too, would tend to show a
steady improvement in the file,
rendering it more applicable to
heavy work in metal.
Again, we find a reference to the
fourteenth century grille in the
Cloister of LePuy-en-Velay. Con-
tinuing his description of this, the
writer says:
"The caps and bases are pro-
[17]
The File In History
duced by the hammer without the
use of the file — processes soon
afterwards abandoned." This again
would seem to indicate the growing
importance at that time of the use
of the file in metal work, the rough
finish obtained from the hammer
alone being replaced by the
smoother effects acquired by filing
down the rough parts and joints.
Germany Led
In File Making
In the middle of the fifteenth cen-
tury Nueremberg was the foremost
place of production of files, but
when the thirty-years' war para-
lyzed the industry of Germany,
Sheffield, England, became the cen-
tre of file manufacturing. Tradition
says that from the earliest times
the manufacture of files has been
carried on in Sheffield. This is, no
doubt, true, because we know that
Sheffield held front rank in the
manufacture of tools for hundreds
of years. However, there is a rec-
ord which states that the first file
was made there in 1618.
When the Calvinists were driven
from France, and the Netherlands,
in 1685, a great number emigrated
to Reimscheid, in the present
Rheinish-Prussia, and this district
soon became the headquarters for
the tool industry of the world. An
auxiliary cause for this was the
abundance of water power to be
had in this district, and Reimscheid
has ever since sent out files to all
parts of the world.
Files at that time were classified
according to their size, the way
they were packed, their form, and
also the purpose for which they
were intended. The "coarse" files
were heavier, as well as deeper cut,
than the "finer." With the "coarse"
files were counted the "hand" files,
"arm" files — sometimes as heavy as
20 pounds — and the "packing" files.
They were also frequently called
the "straw-files," because they were
shipped tied together with straw
ropes. Fleischman, in Reimscheid,
made a "coarse" file to order that
had two hinges, and weighed forty-
six pounds.
All these files were made for
rough work and were bastard-cut,
or so-called "Jack-files." The finer
files were generally named after the
shape of their cross-cuts, and were
also known as dozen files, because
usually packed by the dozen.
The continued absence of exam-
ples of files of even this later pe-
riod can be accounted for not only
through the inevitable rust and con-
sequent disintegration, but also
from the fact that steel was still
so valuable that when a file was
worn out, it was probably used to
make some other implement.
The Swiss began the manufacture
of files at a very early date, but
just when this was is difficult to
say. They have always been noted
for the excellence of their files, but
they made a specialty of the very
fine files used in the manufacture
of jewelry, and, in later times, by
watch-makers.
File Cutters
Among The Colonists
In America, during the days of
the early colonies, most of the files
that might be required were im-
ported from abroad, though a few
artisans who had learned the trade
in their mother countries may have
produced some for local use. It is
claimed that in 1698 there were in
Philadelphia "artificers of many
kinds, among them cutlers, gun-
smiths, locksmiths, nailers, and file-
cutters." The records also show
that a concern named Broad-
meadow & Company was making
files in a small way at their factory
[18]
The File In History
in Pittsburgh, Pa., about 1829.
With this exception, prior to 1840,
the manufacture of files was practi-
cally unknown in the United States.
About 1845 the making of files
on a small scale was begun at Mat-
teawan, N. Y., by John Rothery,
an Englishman. It is reported that
he made excellent files, and his sue--
cess induced others to enter into the
business of making files. From
that time the manufacture of files
took a firm foothold in this coun-
try, but until about 1864, Europe
continued to supply the greater
number of files used in America.
It was a long uphill fight for the
American file manufacturer, for
most of the mechanics had come
from abroad and were naturally
prejudiced in favor of the files they
had learned to use at home.
[19]
The File In History
. 17 Half-round file discovered in Hood Hill, Dorset, Romano-British site.
Period B. C. 50 to A. D. 50.
Fig. 18. — Combined flat and round file discovered at Ilallstatt. Date about 600 B. C.
Fig. 19. — Cranked file found among the Roman remains at Silchester. Date 300 A. D.
Teeth 5 to the inch, rather shallow, apparently filed in.
Fig. 20. — Rasp and knife-shaped files discovered by Prof. Flinders Petric, at Thebes.
Date about B. C. 670.
Fig. 21. — Chisel for large rough files. Chisel for small fine files. Showing
angle of cuts.
[20]
The File In History
PART II
MAKING THE MODERN FILE
THE manufacture of files,
until comparatively recent
times, was done entirely by
hand. Just what methods
the ancients pursued in making
their files it is hard to say, but they
must have followed similar meth-
ods to those in vogue up to about
sixty years ago.
In cutting files by hand, the
necessary tools are so simple, that,
without doubt, those in use in the
later days of the art, were similar
to what the hand cutters of past
generations must have used.
Roman files that have been found
at Alis, Halstatt, and Come-
Chandron, particularly those found
at Halstatt, are of especial interest
as they show one of the earlier
methods of producing the teeth.
That is, in some of the early files
the teeth themselves were formed
by filing. The files mentioned
above gave every evidence of hav-
ing been used for this purpose. The
filing of the teeth, however, seems
soon to have been replaced entirely
by cutting. A chisel made of good
steel made it possible to manufac-
ture the file much quicker than by
the filing method.
Preparing The
File Blank
In preparing the file blanks for
cutting by hand the early stages
were much the same as today. The
blanks were forged to shape out of
bars of steel that had previously
been rolled. The forged blanks
were then annealed to make them
more susceptible to the cutting edge
of the hard steel chisel.
After the annealing process the
surfaces of the blanks were cleaned
and leveled so that the entire sur-
face was accurate. This was done
by grinding and filing. The usual
practice being to file the small
blanks and grind the large ones.
Then the blank was slightly oiled
to allow the chisel to slip over it
easily. It was then ready for the
file cutter. This man was seated
before a square iron anvil, usually
solidly mounted on a heavy stone
base. Provided with blocks of lead
having appropriate grooves to fit
files of various forms, h*e selected
the one required and placed it on
the anvil, adjusted the file blank in
the groove, with the tang toward
him. To hold the blank in place
while being cut leather straps were
used. These passed over each end
of the file, and the ends were held
down by the workman's foot.
The cutter would select a chisel
suitable for the cuts to be made.
See Fig. 13 A and B. Then with a
hammer and this chisel he would
cut the teeth in the blank by a rapid
succession of blows, each time mov-
ing the chisel a < slight, but regular
distance, toward himself. The
workman was aided in gauging this
distance by the slight ridge or burr
raised in advance of the tooth being
cut, at each blow of the chisel. This
is shown quite clearly in Fig. 13 C.
For each new tooth the chisel was
slid until it met this ridge, when it
was ready for the next cut.
The chisel, held at an angle, cuts
the groove and at the same time
raises one edge of the metal, thus
forming the tooth.
The hammer used in file cutting
was of peculiar shape and weighed
sometimes as much as six pounds.
This caused great bodily exertion,
which, in conjunction with the con-
strained position of the file cutter
over the anvil, was very injurious
[21]
The File In History
to health. All this has been done
away with by the use of machines
which will be described later.
Where double cut files were being
made the first cuts (so-called "over-
cut") had to be oiled over to allow
Fig. 22. — These are typical hammers
used by hand-file cutters. The grooves
in the handle of the smaller hammer
have been worn in by the grasp of the
hand through many years' use.
The peculiar shape gives better di-
rection to the blow and puts the weight
at the lower end of the hammer-head,
providing greater ease in working.
the chisel to slip over the surface,
which would otherwise have been
too rough. First cuts were
smoothed over with' a file so the
chisel would work freely.
During this operation of hand
cutting the file became slightly bent.
To eliminate the danger of break-
age, the file was treated to a red
heat before being straightened. It
was then ready for the hardening,
which was, of course, performed ac-
cording to the individual ideas of
the maker. The method, however,
was substantially the same as used
today with the exception that open
fires were used.
The tangs were softened a little
after this operation to prevent
breakage.
Hand-made files were produced
with an astonishing degree of dex-
terity which was only to be ac-
quired by long practice. The burrs
cut on a file with a sharp-edged
chisel were produced at the rate of
150 to 200 per minute. While
traced by the sense of touch alone,
the lines were nearly as straight as
though cut by a machine. Such
skill was long thought to be proof
against the aggression of machin-
ery. As a matter of fact, the
wholesale introduction of machin-
ery into file making would prob-
ably have been deferred until a
great deal later date than it was
had it not been for the chronic dis-
content of the file makers them-
selves. In those days
strikes for higher wages
were very frequent and the
manufacturer was eventu-
ally compelled to choose
between labor-saving machinery or
loss of trade. This brings us to the
history of file-cutting machines.
Cutting Files
By Machine
As stated, the file cutters them-
selves were mainly responsible for
the final adoption of machinery in
the manufacture of files.
While it was not until around
1860 that this change began to take
place, the efforts of inventors had
been directed toward. the perfection
of a suitable machine for several
centuries. It is a well-known fact
that the ancients showed remark-
able mechanical genius and pro-
duced the basic ideas for many
modern tools and machines. Yet
there is nothing in history to show
that they ever dreamed of cutting
the file in any other way than by
hand. The first authentic record of
a machine for the cutting of files
[22]
The File In History
has been chained from a manu-
script left by the great Italian
painter, Leonardo da Vinci, who
was also famous as an engineer.
In 1503 he was appointed chief en-
make the machine independent of
crank and "manpower." A weight
and rope set the main shaft in mo-
tion. The length of rope and
height of weight (giving length of
Fig. 23.— Copy of sketch by Leonardo da Vinci, illustrating his invention of a
file-cutting machine, 1505 A. D.
gineer and architect of the Duke
Caesar's army, and it was during
this service that he conceived the
idea of a file-cutting machine. Fig.
14 shows a reproduction from his
drawing of this machine which he
invented some time before 1505. An
examination of this drawing shows
that all parts of the machine have
been carefully carried out and it is
complete in all details. According
to his description, he intended to
ultimate downward travel) to be
according to the length of file to
be cut.
This device shows his wonderful
inventive capacity and mechanical
skill, since even sixty years ago we
had not advanced much farther
than the design here shown.
Mathurin Jousse in a work en-
titled, "La Fidelle Ouverture de
1'Art de Serrurier," published at La
Flesche in Aujon, 1627, gives a
[23]
The File In History
drawing and description of one in
which the file is drawn along by
shifts by means of wheel work, the
blow being given by a hammer.
Another machine was invented
by a French mechanic- named
Duverger. It has been stated that
he produced this machine about
1735, but according to the Journal
des Savants, published by the
Academic des Sciences in 1702, he
brought out this machine and pre-
sented it to the Academic in 1699.
The description in this journal is
very complete, and it seems that
the machine attracted wide atten-
tion at the time.
In 1725, another file-cutting ma-
chine was invented by Fardonet.
Thiout in his "Traite de 1'Horolo-
gie," published at Paris in 1740,
describes still another machine.
Brachal and Gamain also produced
machines in 1756 and 1778.
James Watt, the famous Scottish
engineer and inventor of the mod-
ern condensing steam engine, en-
deavored to make a file-cutting
machine. He was not successful
because he did not have a "pressure
foot." This is a device which holds
the file firmly in place during the
cutting operation, and it was not
until it was perfected that a
machine became really serviceable.
While these machines were crude
and only partially successful, they
showed the way for other inventive
minds. One of these later inventors
who met with more practical suc-
cess was another French mechanic
named Raoul. In 1800, he pro-
duced a machine which made excel-
lent files. He obtained a reporr o,n
them from a committee of the
Lycee des Arts in which it was
stated that they were equal to the
best English hand-made files. His
machine, however, was only used
to make watchmakers' files.
At first sight, it would appear
from the simplicity and continual
repetition of the movements re-
quired in file-cutting that it was an
operation especially adapted to be
performed by machinery. Never-
theless, it was not until many years
after the first inventor of a file-cut-
ting machine had patented his de-
vice that file-cutting machines were
successfully used, and that machine-
cut files could compete with the
hand-made product in the market.
Over two centuries passed between
the suggestion and the perfection
of the file-cutting machine.
The advent of the file-cutting
machine was marked by a great
deal of opposition, for most file
makers claimed that high-grade
files could not be made by machine.
The early failures bore them out in
this contention, for when first made
by machine, the machine had a
tendency to curl the tooth. This
prevented the tooth from being
sharp, and the file failed to do its
work, but today, one wonders how
a file could ever have been prop~
erly made by hand.
Machine Cut
Files Are Best
It has been said that the early
failure of many machine-made files
was caused by lack of care in the
selection of the material used, not
entirely by the lack of efficiency in
the machines, for with a machine-
made file the teeth are of equal
height and every tooth cuts. In the
hand-made file the teeth vary —
sometimes to a considerable extent.
A machine-cut file will really do
more work and last longer than a
hand-cut. It took time to prove
this, however.
The Swiss, always famous for the
quality of their files, especially the
small sizes for dentists, watchmak-
ers, etc., are said to have been
among the first to use machinery.
While hand-file makers claimed
[24]
The File In History
that the peculiar angles at which
the chisel must be held precluded
the same results with machines, in-
vestigators discovered that the re-
sults obtained from the action of
the chisel were only according to
natural laws which machines could
easily produce.
The failures of the early file-cut-
ting machinery, however, discour-
aged mechanics, and led them to
believe that nothing could ever
equal the hand-cut file.
The first effort to build a suitable
file-cutting machine in the United
States, so far as can be ascertained,
was made by Morris B. Belknapp,
of Greenfield, Mass. On January
16, 1812, he patented a file-cutting
machine which did not prove com-
mercially successful. A certain
William T. James also patented a
file-cutting machine in the same
year.
In 1836, Captain John Ericsson,
then in England, patented a file-
cutting machine which is described
in Holzapffel's work on "Mechani-
cal Manipulation," where it is stated
that one machine could do the work
of ten men. This was followed in
1847 by an ingenious machine in-
vented by George" Winslow, of
Boston.
First Machines
Greatly Imitated
As in the case of many other in-
ventions, as soon as the first ma-
chine appeared there came a rush
of imitators. There was, as a con-
sequence, quite a lengthy list of
patents taken out on file-cutting
machines around this time. It
would be useless to name them all.
Therefore, only those possessing
the most meritorious points, or
which laid the foundation for future
improvements, have been men-
tioned.
The first really practicable ma-
chine was that invented by E. Ber-
not, of Paris. This machine, which
is shown in Fig. 15, was used to
some extent with success in France
and Belgium, and about 1860 was
introduced into Great Britain. It
was patented in the United States
July 24, 1860, and later was brought
into the country.
Fig. 24. — Machine invented by E. Bernot
— the first practical file-cutting machine.
In 1862, M. D. Whipple, of Cam-
bridge, Mass., made a number of
improvements for file-cutting ma-
chines, but the biggest step forward
was when, in the same year, some
enterprising capitalists in Baltimore
secured the right to make and use
Bernot's file-cutting machine in this
country. Nine of these machines
were kfcilt with slight modifications
and set up in Pawtucket, R. I.,
where they ran with great success.
On January 16 and June 13 in
1864/ patents were again issued to
Morris B. Belknapp, of Greenfield,
Mass., for a new machine for cut-
ting files and sickles. This machine
cut from five to six dozen twelve-
[25]
The File In History
inch files daily. On April 11, of this
year, patents were also issued to
Charles Hesser and Amos Paxson,
of Philadelphia, as well as to Wil-
liam T. James, of Greenwich, N. Y.,
for file-cutting.
In 1865, W. T. Nicholson, of
Providence, R. I., invented a file-
cutting machine, which, 'as im-
Pig. 25. — A Disston File-Cutting Machine
—the finest type of modern machine.
proved and modified from time to
time, is still extensively used in the
United States.
Disston's Begin The
Manufacture Of Files
In the sharpening of saws, a
great many files are used. During
the War of the Rebellion, Henry
Disston & Son (this being the firm
name at the time), unable to obtain
files which would give satisfaction,
found it necessary to make files for
their own use. This becoming
known, it was not long before re-
quests were received from custom-
ers that they be supplied. The de-
mand increasing, it was decided to
enter the field of file-making, and
in 1866 a plant was equipped and
additional skilled workmen em-
ployed to turn out high-grade files.
As with his saws, Henry Disston
always wanted to turn out the best,
so he gave his attention to the pro-
duction of a file that would be su-
perior in quality, shape, and cut-
ting power of teeth. Although his
first files were made by hand, he
realized early the necessity of ma-
chines in the production of perfect
files.
As none of the machines so far
invented were considered exactly
perfect, the Disston Works carried
on extensive experiments for the
production of file-cutting machinery
that would be adequate to meet
every demand. Their efforts were
successful. In 1877, the Disston
Works started to make files by the
aid of their own machines. Con-
stant improvements were made
from year to year until today the
teeth of Disston files are cut upon
the most perfect file-cutting ma-
chines.
In 1866, the Sheffield Telegraph,
of Sheffield, England, held a con-
test to reach a final decision as to
whether machine or hand-cut files
were best. One side of each file
used was machine-cut, and the other
hand-cut. After exhaustive tests
the firms trying out these files with-
out a knowledge of which side was
which, decided in favor of the ma-
chine-cut files, which forever set-
tled a controversy that had been
waged for two centuries.
As has been shown in the fore-
going history of the file, many of
the present forms of the file were
substantially originated in the ear-
liest days of its history. These
have been modified and added to as
the knowledge of file manufacture
increased, and new and different
[26]
The File In History
uses were discovered. There are
today a large variety of files being
made. These various forms will be
taken up in the later parts of this
article, but we will first consider
the making of the modern file. In
describing its manufacture the word
methods therefore, will give a clear
idea of the manufacture of the mod-
ern file.
There are, of course, quite a num-
ber of points upon which the high-
grade file depends for its superior-
ity. The principal ones are:
Fig. 26. — Steel room, cutting to multiples or sections.
file is used in its broad sense as
applied to both files and rasps, irre-
spective of either size or form.
Disston Company Make
Greatest Variety Of Files
Although not the oldest manu-
facturers of files in this country,
the Disston File Works today is
well equipped, and turns out the
greatest variety of files made. A
general description of the Disston
Tough steel of a high grade suit-
able for the purpose.
Proper forging and annealing.
Sharp and well-formed teeth.
Thorough hardening.
Careful inspection at every stage
of the work.
The real basis of the file is the
steel. All manufacturers endeavor
to obtain the very finest steel pos-
sible for the purpose, but the qual-
ity of the steel is bound to vary
to some extent unless the manufac-
[27]
The File In History
turer has some way of controlling
the output. Steel for making files
requires a high percentage of car-
bon to obtain the requisite hard-
ness. This carbon-content is apt
to vary unless the "mix" is carefully
regulated.
where the chemical and physical
tests of the steel are made. Con-
stant experiments with proper in-
gredients to maintain and enhance
its quality, are conducted in con-
nection with the steel works.
After the special steel has been
Fig. 27. — Forging.
Make Their
Own Steel
Henry Disston & Sons began to
make crucible steel as early as 1855
so that when they took up the man-
ufacture of files they were in a
position to obtain steel of a high
and uniform quality. The Disston
Steel Works, which includes the
melting department, rolling mills,
steam hammer shop, and trimming
room, occupies several commodious
buildings. There are laboratories
carefully and properly melted, it is
poured into moulds. When the
steel is cool, the mould is removed
and the ingot which has been
formed is then turned over to the
rolling mill, where it is reheated
and rolled into large bars. These
bars are then cut into smaller
pieces, and the pieces are again
heated and run through different
size rolls, which reduce the diame-
ter, but increase the length. The
last roll through which the steel
passes reduces it to the particular
[28]
The File In History
size and imparts the shape or form
desired, such as round, half-round,
flat, three-square, etc., each thick-
ness and shape being specially
rolled.
It may be of general interest to
learn that in rolling steel for a 14-
inch flat file, which is approximately
size and shape required for the file
and is then approximately 50 feet
in length. This long bar or rod of
steel is cut in ten or twelve-foot
lengths and sent to the file works,
where it is cut into multiples the
length of the file to be made.
The first step, then, in the actual
Pig. 28. — The annealing ovens where the blanks are softened before cutting the teeth.
There are eighteen of these ovens in this same room.
1 7-16-inch wide by 2^-inch thick,
the bar, as referred to above, meas-
manufacture of the file is the cut-
ting of these long rods of steel into
Tang of a file.
.
Wiftii'tttttitiii •• - . *'iWjj&&SEtBSBSS
ures 4 inches by 4 inches, 24 inches
long. This is heated and rolled
through one roll after another con-
tinuously, until it is reduced to the
pieces or sections of the required
length. The pieces of steel thus
formed are termed file blanks.
The file blank is then "tanged."
[29]
The File In History
The tang is the smooth, pointed end
on a file which may be fitted to a
handle when in use, although very
frequently the file is employed with-
out the handle. The tang, while
forming part of the file, is never
included when measuring the
length of a file.
a certain degree of heat. Forging
the tang requires a certain amount
of skill, but so expert are the men
who do the work and so quick
their actions, keeping time with the
rise and fall of the power-driven
hammer, that the tang is formed in
less time than it takes to describe it.
Fig. 30. — Grinding file blanks.
Forging
The Tang
For the tanging operation the
blanks are taken to the forging
room where one end is heated and
forged or shaped into the tang.
The operator is seated before an
automatic hammer with a small
furnace close at hand, in which the
blanks are inserted and one end
heated, the temperature of the fur-
nace being uniformly maintained at
In the case of some of the shapes
of files, after the tang is formed,
the other end of the blank is heated
and forged to shape or rounded.
Before the blanks can be ground
and the teeth cut it is necessary to
soften the metal. This is called
annealing, and is the next step in
their manufacture. To do this the
blanks are put in air-tight metal
boxes, placed in an oven, and sub-
jected to a predetermined degree of
heat for a number of hours. When
[30]
The File In History
taken out of this oven they must
remain in these boxes until cold.
Otherwise the whole annealing-
process would be useless, for the
files would become hard again if
allowed to cool in the open air.
These various heating and re-
heating operations through which
are "stripped." This operation
takes away the glaze left after
grinding and prepares the surface
for cutting. By a special process
the file blank is rubbed down, or
filed by a finished file especially
made for the purpose. This work
is done on a machine, but it is
Fig. 31. — "Stripping" and "Cutting" small flies.
the file blank has passed cause it
to warp, or twist, and it is neces-
sary next to take them to the
straightening department, where
they are made level for the grinding
operation which follows. This
grinding operation is quite an im-
portant factor in the making of a
file, for the blank must be ground
to remove the scale and oxidizing
and made perfectly even, or else
when toothed the teeth will not be
uniform.
After being ground, the blanks
necessary for the operator in at-
tendance to rub on, constantly, a
preparation which renders the sur-
face of the blank even, flat, smooth
and firm.
Cutting
The Teeth
After the stripping process the
blanks go to the cutting room
where the teeth are cut in them.
This operation was formerly done
slowly and laboriously by hand, as
[31]
The File In History
we have previously described. It
is now done entirely by machine
in the Disston Works, except for a
few classes of odd shapes of files
which must be cut by hand. Mod-
ern practice has demonstrated, how-
ever, that the hand-cut file cannot
possibly possess the same high em-
one side and the second cut, or
"upcut," is put on, the teeth run-
ning in an opposite direction. On
some machines the chisel is turned
instead of the bed. On page 26,
Fig. 16, is illustrated one of the
machines on which Disston files
are cut. This style of machine
Fig. 32.— "Cutting" large files.
ciency that a machine-cut file does
for the reason that the machine will
do the work uniformly from the
beginning of the day to its close.
During the cutting operation the
blank is secured in a "bed" which
travels back and forth under a
chisel that "raises" the teeth at a
speed the eye can hardly follow.
When double-cut files are being
made the blank is put through the
machine and "overcut." Then the
position of the bed is shifted to
represents the highest development
in file-cutting machines, and is one
of the many reasons why Disston
files are so superior, both in the
efficiency and endurance of the
teeth. Aside from the machines
being differently constructed, the
main difference between cutting
files and rasps lies in the chisel
used. For files the chisel cuts an
angle all the way across the file at
one stroke, while the bed moves
steadily. In cutting rasps, however,
[32]
The File In History
a pointed punch of peculiar form
is used. This punch travels back
and forth across the blank, the bed
moving only after each row of
teeth is completed.
In cutting half-round files the
chisel cuts the teeth in rows, length-
wise of the file blank instead of
After passing inspection the file
is "cropped" or cut to exact length.
This operation consists of cutting a
small portion off the point of the
file to bring it to proper length.
When "cropped" the file is stamped
with the famous Disston brand on
the end just above the tang.
Fig. 32. — Where files are hardened.
straight across, the bed being
moved back and the position of
the blank changed as each row is
finished.
Disston Files
Rigidly Inspected
When the teeth have been cut the
files pass into the inspecting room
where a thorough examination is
made of the teeth. If these are not
absolutely perfect the file is re-
jected.
With the very small sizes of files
it is necessary to straighten them
after the teeth are cut. This is done
by placing the file on a lignum vitae
block and striking it a light blow
with a lead hammer, which will
straighten the file without affecting
the teeth.
The file is then covered with a
paste that protects the edges of
the teeth during the heating for the
hardening process, which is one of
the most important operations. The
coated file is heated by being im-
[33]
The File In History
mersed in molten lead, withdrawn
and plunged deep in a bath, moved
back and forth a few times until
somewhat cooled. While the file
is still hot it is given a final
straightening.
from the file the paste that was put
on to protect the teeth during the
hardening. In the second, the files
are washed in lime water and are
dried by holding them in steam.
The next and last operation in
Fig. 34. — Section of superfine file department.
Putting On
The Finishing Touches
From a comparatively soft state
the file has now become so hard
that an attempt to bend it will
cause it to break. Files are never
tempered, but hardened to a par-
ticular degree which gives greatest
durability. After this comes the
"scrubbing" and "drying." The
first of these operations removes
the making of a file before the final
inspection, is "blueing" the tangs,
and oiling the file. This "blueing"
operation toughens the tang
against breakage when putting on
the handle. It is done by heating
and dipping the tang into a prepa-
ration that is maintained at a cer-
tain degree of heat.
The files are then oiled, neatly
arranged in wooden trays, and sent
to the inspectors for final examina-
[34]
The File In History
tion and test for straightness, cut-
ting qualities, and durability.
Successfully passing the exami-
nation, they are proved as to cutting
quality by the inspector drawing
the "prover" — a piece of steel
90 degrees hard according to the
Brinell tests — over each side of the
file; if the file "takes hold" of this
it is next given the "ring" test, the
inspector dropping one end of the
file on a block of steel and deter-
mining by the ring if it is sound
and true. The files are now ready
for the final step — packing.
Making Hxira
Pine Piles
In the manufacture of superfine
files, of which Henry Disston &
Sons make a specialty, the majority
of the operations are similar to the
methods we have been describing.
Steel of the same quality is used.
It is cut into multiples in the usual
manner, followed by the "tanging,"
"annealing," "straightening," and
"grinding" operations with which
the reader is now familiar.
The method of manufacture dif-
fers slightly after the grinding
operation. The superfine file blank
is put through a "shaping" process
which corresponds in effect to the
"stripping" operation in the case of
the larger files.
To do this the file blank is se-
cured in a vise, and the soft surface
(the blank not having been hard-
ened as yet) is smoothed down with
a finished file made especially for
the purpose.
As in the "stripping" operation
described for regular files, this
process is necessary to make the
surface of the blank smooth and
even before the cutting operation,
which follows.
Owing to the fineness of teeth
and the different shapes in which
the superfine files are made, the
"toothing" operations are also
somewhat different.
On files that are made for extra
fine work, such as those for jewel-
ers', dentists', and surgeons' use,
the teeth are "etched" in. This
method of toothing a superfine file
is done with an apparatus of very
peculiar construction. It differs
radically from the methods used
in cutting larger files, involving a
greater amount of hand work, but
this is necessary on account of the
fineness of the teeth.
In cutting the teeth of a half-
round superfine file it is necessary
to use two "beds." The file blank
when fitted in the "groove" of the
first "bed" is nearly on edge with
the flat side toward the operator.
The teeth' are then "raised" or cut
in narrow rows at an angle to the
line of the file blank, but only half
way around. Another "bed" is then
substituted. This also stands the
file blank nearly on edge, but with
the round side toward the opera-
tor. The teeth are cut toward the
center until they meet the last row
of teeth cut from the other side. To
shift the "bed" so that the chisel
can cut each row, a worm-gear,
adjusted by the operator is used.
In the case of a single-cut file
the cutting of the teeth would now
be finished, but in cutting double-
cut files the operation is gone over
again. This time the center of the
chisel is over the spot where two
rows of teeth connect. In this way
the chisel "upcuts" over half of
each row — the "upcut" teeth run-
ning in an opposite direction to the
first teeth.
After the toothing operation, the
superfine files go through another
straightening process before the
hardening. This straightening is
also done with a lead hammer so
[35]
The File In History
that the teeth will not be damaged low, is done in the same manner as
in any way. with larger files.
They are then taken to the hard- The files are then sent to the in-
ening room and hardened, which specting room where, before being
operation,. together with the packed, they are given the final
"straightening," "scrubbing," "dry- inspection and tests similar to those
ing," and tang "blueing" that fol- described for regular files.
[36]
The File In History
PART III
FORMS AND USES OF FILES
THE foregoing closed the his-
tory of the file as well as the
details of its making. To
make this article more com-
plete, however, it will be extended
to embrace a general description of
or form of teeth. Many files of
different shapes have teeth of simi-
lar form, as there are only a cer-
tain number of standard forms of
"cut." For this reason the varia-
tions in the "cut" or form of teeth
SINGLE CUT
Particularly adapted for saw filing, also used on lathe work by machinists and
by SQine classes of wood workers, carriage builders, etc.
Rough
Middle
Bet. bastard & middle
Bastard
Second-cut.
Smooth
Fig. 35. — These "cuts" are in general use for 12-inch files. On files longer than 12
inches the "cut" is made proportionately coarser and finer on shorter lengths.
the forms and uses of the modern
file; for so widespread is the use of
this tool — so interwoven with the
industries of the world — that it has
become indispensable.
Files, according to the purposes
for which they are intended, differ
in shape and thickness, and in "cut"
will be considered first. With a
thorough understanding of this,
later references will be much
clearer.
In the first place, the term "cut"
refers to two characteristics of the
teeth and is a general term that
must be supplemented with a more
[37]
The File In History
DOUBLE CUT
Fig. 36. — Especially adapted for use in machine shops, locomotive works,
foundries and similar classes of, work.
Rough
Middle
Bastard
Second-cut
Dead smooth
Smooth
RASP CUT
Fig. 37. — Used by blacksmiths, horseshoers, plumbers, cabinet makers,
wood workers, etc.
Horse
Rough
Middle
Bastard
Second-cut
[38]
Smooth
The File In History
definite designation when an exact
description of the file is intended.
The kind or character of the teeth
in a file, as well as the degree of
coarseness or fineness, are both
embraced in the general term "cut,"
but each of these characteristics has
its separate classification. The
character of the teeth is described
under three main divisions, viz.:
single cut, double cut, and rasp
cut.
The single cut file has one un-
broken course of teeth or chisel
cuts across its surface, parallel to
each other, but usually at an ob-
lique angle to the length of the file.
Chisel-like, it makes a smooth cut.
A few patterns of files, however,
have the teeth cut square across the
face of the file and more widely
spaced. This is called the float
cut and is used for filing lead,
babbitt, or other soft metals, and
also for cork and wood. The wide
space between the teeth is neces-
sary that the file may free itself of
the cuttings, which in a finer cut
file would fill up and clog the teeth.
The single cut is used on the
majority of mill files, taper saw
and other saw files.
The double cut file has two
courses of chisel cuts crossing each
other, both oblique across the file
blank. The first course is called
the "over-cut" and the second
course the "up-cut." Its direction
being across the first course, the
chisel cuts through the over-cut.
Consequently the teeth of double
cut files are "points," and those of
single cut files are chisels. The
double cut is used on all machinists'
files, such as flat, hand, square,
round, half-round, etc., with the ex-
ceptions of the round bastard files
10 inches and under in length, and
second cut and smooth files 16
inches and under in length which
may be single cut.
Rasp cut differs from both the
above in that the teeth are not
placed in parallel rows across the
file, but are staggered, each tooth
being put in separately by a pointed
tool or punch. While cutting uni-
formly, rasp teeth, because they are
larger and raised higher, cut much
faster than either single or double
cut teeth.
The illustrations of "cuts" on the
preceding pages are engraved from
files and rasps 12 inches long; if
longer than 12 inches the cuts will
be coarser, and if shorter, they will
be finer in proportion.
Varying Degrees
Of Coarseness
The degree of coarseness is de-
noted . by the names bastard, sec-
ond-cut, and smooth. In. addition
to these there are coarser cuts
known as rough and coarse; also
a finer cut identified as dead
smooth.
The name bastard as applied to
the cut of a file comes from the
days when files were entirely cut
by hand and it is supposed to have
been given to a cut between what
was termed rough cut and the
finer grades of cutting, and the file
became a standard, taking the place
of rough oj coarse cuts and has
been known since then as the bas-
tard cut. The same is the case
in the names of flat bastard and
hand bastard files; while both are
the same as to cut, they vary a little
in shape and both are often used
for the same purpose.
The various groups or classes
of files have certain accepted stand-
ards for the cuts to be used. Ref-
erence to the explanation above of
the single and double cuts as well
as to the illustrations will afford
a fairly complete index to these.
It is well to bear in mind that a
"rough-cut" or coarse file has the
least number of teeth to the inch,
[39]
The File In History
while the "smooth-cut" or fine file
has the greatest.
Exceptions to the standard
forms and cuts of files are some-
times found in the various trades.
To meet certain conditions peculiar
to a business special forms and cuts
are sometimes necessary.
saw works and handle department
and machine shops — they are in an
exceptionally favorable position to
judge the results- obtained from all
classes of teeth. The standards
which they have adopted, therefore,
may be taken as the final word re-
garding the shape and number of
PRINCIPAL FORMS OF FILES
Half-round
Cant or lightning
Mill
Flat
Pillar
Great American Horse rasp Shoe rasp
Fig. 38. — The above are actual-size sections of different types of flies of the
length given on each section. The illustrations of files following, however, are con-
siderably reduced in size, but show comparative shape.
In this connection it is well to
state that while there are accepted
standards for the character of the
teeth, there is no established rule
fixing any certain number of teeth
to the inch for any particular cut.
Consequently there is more or less
of a variation in the number of
teeth cut to the inch by different
manufacturers. Owing to the very
large quantity of files used in the
shops of Henry Disston & Sons —
over 35,000 dozen annually in their
teeth to the inch necessary to ob-
tain the highest efficiency from a
file.
Varieties
Of Files
Having explained as clearly as
possible in the foregoing, the differ-
ences in the teeth of files, we will
now take up the varieties of files,
together with some of their uses.
[40]
The File In History
Mill file
Mill file with Blunt
one round edge mill file
Fig. 39.
Narrow point
mill file
Modern files, though employed
chiefly in the forming and finishing
of metals and wood, are also used
to a considerable extent upon other
substances, such as bone, leather,
celluloid, hard rubber, etc. The
general use of files is in shaping
small pieces, or in finishing sur-
faces which are already of approxi-
mately correct form. In machine
shop practice the use of the file fol-
lows the work of the lathe or planer
tools.
Files are graded by shape, size,
[41]
The FUe In History
and fineness of cut, and the forms
given to them, as well as the sizes,
run into many hundreds. Of all
Double tang Chisel tooth Pit saw Cant
mill file file file file
Fig. 40.
tools known there are none used
for so many purposes and of so
many styles as files. There are
.;..-;.-;: •:. , •.;./
several hundred types of regular
files and several thousands of regu-
lar and special combined, all of
which are designated by a name
according to the length, shape, and
grade of the cut; besides the hun-
dreds of special names for the pur-
poses for which the}' are made and
used.
The sizes range from the fine,
wire-like jewelers' file to the large,
heavy machinists' file — from the
tiny superfine broach file, 3 inches
long, and less than 1-32 of an inch
in diameter, which weighs only .008
of an ounce, 1800 to the pound, to
great circular facing files which
weigh 135 pounds each.
In the character of their teeth
they vary even more greatly, from
the deep, coarse rasp-cut files used
by farriers to the dead-smooth sur-
faces of the delicate little imple-
ments employed by jewelers. Files
are classified as to coarseness and
fineness principally by the "cuts"
described on pages 37 and 38, and
upon these are based the variations
which are required by the class of
work to be performed.
On page 40 are shown sections
of some of the files in general use.
These basic forms, with slight de-
viations, control the forms of the
principal files now manufactured.
Reference to these sectional views
and the "cut" illustrations will be
of considerable aid in following the
descriptions of files that are to fol-
low.
Under the general heading of files
are found four groups, viz.: regular
files, rasps, superfine files, and
special files. These four groups
in turn resolve themselves into
other divisions which embrace $ a
great variety of files. fo
In picturing and describing th
different files, the group of regui
files will be taken up first.
There are two divisions of regu-
[42]
The File In History
lar files— saw files and machinists'
files.
As the name implies, saw files
are particularly adapted for sharp-
ening saws and also for work simi-
lar to filing the edge of plates or
sheets, for which the double-cut
files are not suited. They are sin-
gle-cut and in degree are usually
b a s t a r d-c u t, second-cut, and
smooth-cut.
The class of work performed in
machine shops necessitates a differ-
ent character of "cut" from the
above — hence machinists' files are
usually double-cut and in degree
rough-cut, bastard-cut, second-cut
and smooth-cut.
The repetition above of the word
"usually" may appear peculiar, but
it is used advisedly, for it may
truly be said that in no other line of
manufacture are there so many
variations from regular as in the
file business.
Of the class of saw files the one
having the widest range of shapes,
sizes, and cuts, is the mill file.
Mill files derive their name from
the fact that they are used prin-
cipally for filing mill saws and for
sharpening planer knives. They are
also used, however, for sharpening
mowing and reaping machine
knives, as well as for certain kinds
of work by mechanics, such as
lathe work, draw-filing, etc. They
are used, too, for finishing combina-
tions of bronze and brass. Having
chisel teeth they leave a compara-
tively smooth surface, which
double-cut teeth do not, though
double-cut teeth cut faster. All mill
files are single-cut.
Mill files are forged tapering
from near center to point. This
applies to both width and thick-
ness, as they are slightly thinner
and narrower at the point.
Mill files are also made with one
and two round edges, single-cut
both on the sides and edges. The
round edges make the mill file
more adaptable for filing the teeth
in circular and other mill saws. The
use of the round edge prevents the
formation of sharp corners or
notches in the gullets between the
saw teeth.
Blunt mill files are parallel in
both width and thickness. This
gives the full width of the surface
for the entire length of the file.
Otherwise they are the same as
those just described. These are
rarely used by millmen, but are
mostly in demand for machine shop
work.
The narrow point mill file is
another variation of the mill file.
There is no particular advantage in
the extra narrow point, it being
simply a .matter of preference.
Very few narrow point mill files
are sold in the United States. The
majority of those manufactured go
to Canada.
There is also a special mill file
having what is called a fine bas-
tard cut. This is a cut between
the bastard and the second-cut,
and is used by many who prefer a
file that will meet certain require-
ments in saw filing which a bas-
tard or second-cut file will not.
The double tang mill file is
meant for use with two handles. A
man can then grasp it conveniently
with both hands. It is used chiefly
for draw filing.
A saw file which departs some-
what from the standard form is the
chisel point file. This is made
especially for use in sharpening the
points of inserted tooth circular
saws.
The pit saw file is used for filing
the teeth in pit saws and frame
saws. When used for the latter
purpose it is sometimes asked for
under the name of frame saw file.
The cant or lightning file is
frequently used for sharpening the
[43]
The File In History
teeth of wood saws, or, as more
commonly known, buck saws. Its
principal use, however, is to
sharpen the teeth of cross-cut saws
having M-shaped teeth, and to
sharpen the raker teeth of cross-cut
saws.
Necessity For
Special Files
Great Stave Field's
American saw pattern
cross-cut file stave saw
"saw file file
Fig. 41.
Round
file
[44]
A very strong example of how it
is necessary to make special files
for special purposes is furnished by
the Great American cross-cut saw
file.
In this case, as well as in many
others, almost any file could be
used with a certain degree of suc-
cess. This, and numerous other
special files, however, have proved
by long and extensive use that no
other file can completely answer the
purpose for which a special file is
intended.
The popular cross-cut saw known
as the "Great American" was origi-
nated, and the name trade-marked,
by Disston. The special form of
the teeth on this saw necessitated
a file being made to suit them.
This was done and it was also
trade-marked "Great American."
By referring to the diagram of
the teeth of a "Great American"
cross-cut saw on page 45 it will
be seen why this special form of
file is necessary. When the file is
in the spaces marked A, while fil-
ing the bevel on the teeth, it will be
seen that only a wedge-shaped file
like the "Great American" could be
used to advantage. On the other
hand, for filing the gullets marked
B, a specially formed broad and
rounded edge is necessary on the
file.
The File In History
This detailed explanation, while
applying, in this instance, to one
particular file, affords an insight
into the causes which have made
necessary so many varieties of files.
The stave saw file is somewhat
similar to the mill file with two
round edges. It is formed on
slightly different lines, however, to
make it suitable for the purpose for
which it is intended — filing the teeth
on cylinder s'aws. A special stave
saw file of peculiar form is that
known as field's pattern. This
somewhat follows the lines of a
three-square file, except that one
edge is broad and rounded.
Round files are made for vari-
ous purposes, such as enlarging
holes, etc. These are generally
tapered, but sometimes they are
made parallel or of uniform diame-
ter from heel to point. The latter
are called round blunt files. A
round blunt file for mill use is
the round gulleting file. Owing
to the tapering form of the round
files, they are frequently referred
to as rat-tail files.
Another gulleting file is known as
the square gulleting file. This is
blunt, square in form, and single-
cut on four faces.
The topping file is a file similar
to the mill file, but of heavier
stock.
There are several files especially
made for band saw use. These are
along the lines of the taper file,
and, in fact, taper files, regular
and slim, for band saw use are reg-
ularly made. About the only differ-
ence between these and the regular
taper saw files is that they have
the corners or edges more rounded
and have three rows of cuts. The
"cut" is the same as given the reg-
ular taper file. Band saw files
include the blunt and machine
band saw files. The machine file
fits in a band saw filing machine
which sharpens the teeth automati-
cally. These machine files are
usually about four and one-half
inches in length and are made both
heavy and light as shown in the
illustration (page 47).
Files For
Small Saws
This completes the list of single-
cut files adapted to mill require-
ments. Single-cut saw files in-
tended for hand saws and other
small saws will now be taken up.
Heading the list of these are the
taper saw files. Taper files are
three-cornered files, similar to the
three square files, but usually
smaller in length. The principal
difference between them is the fin-
ishing of the edges. Taper files
have the edges slightly rounded,
to leave a round bottom in the gul-
Fig. 42.
let of the tooth, and these edges
are cut as well as the sides. The
three-square file, which is always
double-cut, on the other hand, has
the edges left quite sharp, and un-
cut. The taper saw file is usually
single-cut and is used generally for
sharpening hand saws. For this
[45]
The File In History
reason there is probably no other
file so widely used, or so well
known.
Taper files are divided into three
classes: the regular taper file, the
slim taper file, the extra slim taper
file, and some are made extra extra
slim. The slim taper files are of
the same general shape as the regu-
lar taper file, but are made of a
narrower section of steel for the
same length. They are preferred
by many on account of the greater
sweep or stroke obtained from the
same thickness of file. The slim
taper file is particularly adapted for
filing fine tooth saws.
The extra slim and extra extra
slim taper are files similar to the
slim taper files, but are made of
narrower stock and are adapted for
filing the very fine toothed saws.
A variation of the taper file is
the reversible taper saw file. These
files are forged tapering from the
center toward both ends and are
single-cut in the same way. This
gives the advantage of two files in
one.
Still another variation is the
blunt saw file. This is triangular
in form, but parallel in thickness
instead of tapering to a point. It
is "cut" similar to a taper file.
The Little Wonder saw file (il-
lustration page 48) is preferred by
some mechanics for filing hand and
other saws on account of its special
shape and the thumb rest on the
end.
Hunt's chrome special three-
square file is particularly adapted
Slim French Stubbs' Perfection for filing fine tooth hand saws,
taper tile taper pattern shear tooth
cut to tile double cut file A *u • i £i r j
point saw gig Another special saw file formed
Fig. 43. along the lines of the cant or
[46]
The File In History
Round Square
blunt gulleting
file file
Topping Blunt band Machine Machine
saw file saw file band saw band saw
file, light file, heavy
Fig. 44.
The File In History
Slim Extra slim Reversible 6-inch cant Little Blunt
taper taper taper saw safe back Wonder saw tile
saw file saw file file file saw file
Fig. 45.
[48]
The File In History
lightning is the cant safe back
file. This is similar in shape, an
irregular triangle, but is cut only
on the broad side, the other two
sides being "safe" or uncut. This
file is particularly adapted for filing
the Disston No. 120 Acme Hand-
saw, which is specially ground and
toothed to run without set.
The climax file is another file
especially made for its purpose —
that of filing wood saw blades and
similar blades.
The two last mentioned files are
of special form, and, by their use,
the original shape of the saw teeth
will be retained.
Before closing this description of
single-cut saw files it may be well to
call attention to two taper files
which vary slightly from the usual
forms. These are made principally
for export, as there is no great de-
mand for them in this country.
One of these is a taper file cut
to the point. That is, the "cut" is
carried to the extreme end, or point,
of the file, instead of leaving a
small portion of the point blank.
This difference can be seen by com-
paring the illustrations on page 46
with those of regular tapers.
The other is the French taper
file which is similar to the regular
file in all respects save that the sec-
tion of steel from which it is made
is much heavier.
Double Cut
Saw Files
In taking up double-cut files
under the division of saw files it is
to be noted that many of the forms
of files which are generally single-
cut, and were described under that
heading, can also be obtained as
double-cut files. Mill files and
taper saw files are typical of this;
also, in a limited way, cant and pit
saw files. While the double-cut
files cut faster, the single-cut make
a much smoother cut.
One of the exceptions to the rule
that saw .files are single-cut is the
Stubbs' pattern taper saw file.
This file is double-cut down to the
point and is principally used for fil-
ing saws that are harder than usual,
such as hack saw blades. The most
noticeable difference in the Stubbs'
pattern file is found in the tang and
the short taper to point. Instead of
having a shoulder where the body
of the file usually drops sharply
to the small diameter of the tang,
the tang gradually tapers off with
the three edges carried all the way
to the point.
As practically all saw files are
single-cut this description of
double-cut saw files completes the
list of this class of file, except those
used on metal-cutting saws. Files
of this nature, however, require a
superfine tooth.
The next sub-division to be con-
sidered under the heading of regu-
lar files is machinists' files. These,
like the saw files, are also divided
into single and double-cut, but the
majority are double-cut, just as sin-
gle-cut predominates in the saw
files. This is because the greater
part of machine shop work requires
fast, heavy cutting, which is only
obtainable from a double-cut file.
The exception is in the mill file,
which is single-cut, and is used for
lathe work, draw filing, and finish-
ing.
[49]
The File In History
The special single-cut file to be
mentioned under this heading, how-
ever, is somewhat of an exception
to this statement. This file is called
the Perfection shear tooth file. In
form, it is usually like the narrow
point mill file, while its teeth are
much coarser and farther apart than
in the ordinary file. These teeth
vary in size according to require-
ments, and are known as coarse,
medium, or fine cut. (Illustration
page 46.)
The shear tooth file is adapted
for quick work on metal, such as
soft steel, iron and brass castings,
as well as wood and marble. It is
especially valuable to machinists
and for lathe purposes. In action
it makes a shear cut, filing rapidly
and giving clean, smooth results.
This style of tooth can be given
almost any shape of file when
ordered.
Taper Hunt's
saw file chrome
three-
square
Fig. 46.
Climax
file
Quite a long list of files are found
under the double-cut heading for
machine shop use. The leading
files for this work are hand, flat,
half-round, and square for bench
work, and the mill file for lathe
work, as referred to before. These
and the other files following are
usually made in "cuts" bastard,
second cut, and smooth.
Hand files are not so named be-
cause they are made or used by
hand. The name is merely a tech-
nical one, designating a particular
style of file. They are parallel in
width, and from about two-thirds
of the length taper thinner to the
point, and are made with one edge
"safe" or uncut. These files are
used chiefly by machinists and en-
gineers for finishing flat surfaces.
Flat files are tapered both in
width and thickness, and are gen-
[50]
The File In History
Flat file
Half-round
file
Hand file
New angle
or lathe
cut file
Fig. 47.
Square
file
Knife
file
[51]
The File In History
erally double-cut on both sides and
single-cut on both edges. They
are sometimes made blunt in form
Feather
edge file
Fig. 48.
Three-
square file
(parallel both in width and thick-
ness), and can also be obtained with
one or two round edges if required.
Flat files are made in various de-
grees of "cut" — rough, middle, bas-
tard, second cut, smooth, dead
smooth, double dead smooth.
In addition to their being largely
used in machine shops, flat files are
in great demand by mechanics in
nearly all lines of work.
The half-round file, which di-
vides machine shop honors with the
hand and flat file, is, as its name
implies, half-round in form and
tapers to the point from about two-
thirds of its length. This shape
makes it a most useful file for gen-
eral machine shop work. While
usually tapered, the half-round file
can also be obtained as a blunt file.
Round files, already referred to
on page 45, are also largely em-
ployed in machine shops. They are
chiefly used for enlarging holes.
The round file in blunt form is
used on the heavier class of work.
There is another special cut file,
the hand bastard for brass, the
first course of teeth being straight
across and the up-cut more oblique
than on most files.
Resembling the hand files in
shape is the new angle, or lathe
cut file. On this file the first, or
"over-cut," is almost straight
across, instead of at an angle, while
the second, or "up-cut," is placed at
a much greater angle than is usual.
The result of this is to get a much
larger cutting surface on the file
at one time, making it fast cutting
and fine finishing. This file is much
in demand for lathe work.
Square files are used by nearly
all classes of mechanics for filing
apertures or dressing out square
[52]
The File In History
Equaling
file
Pillar
file
Plotting
file,
bellied,
rough
Fig. 49.
Slotting
file,
smooth
cut
Taper
cotter
file
[53]
The File In History
Arch
file
Warding
file
Planer
knife
file
Fig. 50.
Oval
tumbler
file
Cross
file
[54]
The File In History
Lock
file
Half
round
file
for solder
Hand
bastard
file
for brass
Fig. 51.
Flat
aluminum
file
Half
round
aluminum
file
[55]
The File In History
corners. While they are regularly
made slightly tapering on the
point, they are also obtainable in
the blunt (parallel) form.
The knife files are forged taper-
ing and are quite similar in shape to
the blade of a pocket knife. They
are made in lengths from four to
fourteen inches, but can be made
in all sizes. They are usually
double-cut on both sides and the
upper edge left safe or uncut, the
thin edge single-cut. Knife files
are mainly used on metal and for
special forms for which the shape
is particularly adapted, such as die
work, etc., having acute angles.
For purposes somewhat similar
to the above the feather edge file
is used. This file is parallel in
length, it's thickest part is in the
center, tapering to a thin edge at
each side. It is used for truing up
V-shaped grooves, filing special
shaped teeth in saws, slots, etc.
The Three
Square File
The three-square file, which has
been referred to on several occa-
sions, is a three-sided file formed
along the same lines as the taper
saw file. Its form, in fact, is the
basis for the taper saw file.
The three-square file is tapered,
the teeth are cut all the way to the
point, and it is always double-cut
on all three sides. The edges are
uncut and left very sharp. It is a
popular and much used file in the
machine shop, but is employed
chiefly in cleaning out sharp angles
and square corners, and filing cut-
ters, taps, etc. While resembling
the taper saw file so closely that
a person not familiar with files
might mistake one for the other,
they are entirely useless as saw
files. The three-square file is
sometimes made in the blunt form.
The equaling file is used in ma-
chine shop work. It is somewhat
thinner than the hand file, is paral-
lel in length and thickness and is
cut on both sides and edges. It is
usually ordered of a size suitable
for the work intended — similar to
truing up slots — and sometimes re-
quired with both edges "safe" or
uncut. While used for the same
purpose as a slotting file, they are
considerably wider, regularly made
four to twelve inches in length,
whereas the slotting file ranges
from ten to eighteen inches in
length. They are mostly made
with "cuts" bastard, second cut,
and smooth.
The pillar file is one much like
the hand file in section, but nar-
rower. It is cut on both sides and
one edge, the other being safe or
uncut. Reference to th« sections, or
forms, of files on page 40 will ex-
plain the difference much more
clearly than it could be written.
While tapered, the taper is very
slight, and only for a short space
toward and on the point. It is used
in machine shops on narrow work
such as slotting, or cutting grooves
for cotters, and keys or wedges.
There are two other files made
for this work. First, slotting files,
one type of which is made blunt or
parallel in width and thickness, and
the other slightly bellied; that is,
with a curvature which runs from
the point to the tang. They are
made from ten to eighteen inches
long, cut on both sides and one
edge, the other left safe. Second,
taper cotter files, narrow flat files
which taper to points and are cut
on the sides and edges.
The arch file is of peculiar
shape, being thickest at the center,
The File In History
tapering thinner to heel and to
point (see page 54). It is widest at
the center, slightly rounding to a
narrow point and heel, and is cut on
both sides and edges. Though some-
times square, the edges are usually
for locks. It can also be used for
making a round hole into an oval
shape.
The cross file, sometimes called
the "shadbelly," is a file which is
Fig. 52— Block or valve file.
rounded. It is used on work in ma-
chine shops where this curvature is
desirable.
The warding file is a very thin
file from four to fourteen inches in
length, and is used in slotting work
by both jewelers and machinists,
but especially by locksmiths for
putting the slots or ward notches
in keys.
Files For
Special Work
A sort of connecting link between
single and double-cut files is the
planer knife file. While it is
sometimes made double-cut on
both sides, in its regular form each
side is half single-cut and half
double-cut. This file is for sharp-
ening planer knife blades while on
the machine. This is a quicker and
easier job than taking the blades out
and grinding them.
A file of somewhat peculiar form
is the oval tumbler. This is used
principally for filing the tumblers
sometimes used in place of the
half-round file, on the same sort
of work. In this file both sides are
rounded out, but one side, which
resembles the half-round file, is
higher than the other. This gives
a varying curvature on the same
file.
The lock file is special in form,
which will be understood better by
referring to the illustration on page
55, than through any printed de-
scription. The lock file is used
for slotting work, mainly in connec-
tion with the making of locks and
key work.
For the filing of brass and other
similar metals, owing to the soft
nature of the material, it is neces-
sary to use files with teeth of spe-
cial open or coarse cut. Otherwise
the filings will be retained between
the teeth, quickly clogging up the
file and causing it to ride over the
work without cutting.
The "hand bastard for brass" is
specially made for the purpose. It
[57]
The File In History
has deep teeth, is a fast cutter and
practically a self-cleaner. The
"over-cut" is on a longer angle than
usual, while the up-cut is almost
straight across. This special angle
cut can be furnished on any shape
file desired.
A special open cut is given the
"half-round file for solder," a file
for soft metals, and experience has
demonstrated this to be the best for
the purpose.
Coming under this class also, and
previously referred to, is the Per-
fection shear tooth file, which is
adapted for quick work on soft
steel, iron, brass castings, wood,
marble, etc. This extra wide cut
can be made on all shapes of files.
A special file for machine shop and
foundry use is the aluminum file,
designed particularly for filing
aluminum patterns. This comes in
both the flat and half-round forms.
This completes the list of files
in general use for the heavier work
in machine shops.
many additional pages. For in-
stance, there is the triple valve
file, for filing sliding valve seats.
This file is tanged on one end. The
Special Shape
Piles
Of course, there is quite a variety
of other shapes of files used by
machinists and machinery builders,
to describe which would require
[mill
Fig. 53. — "Cut" used for filing handles.
Flat wood
file
Fig. 54.
Cabinet
file
[58]
The File In History
Fig. 55. — Kleen-spark tool.
Fig. 56. — Midget magneto file.
3 OISSTON
DiSSTON 22
Fig. 57. — Manicure files.
Fig. 58. — Flexible milled shear tooth file.
[59]
The File In History
Flat wood
rasp
Half round
wood
rasp
Round
wood
rasp
Fig. 59.
ouud
cabinet^
; rasp
. Saddle tree
rasp
[60]
The File In History
other end is forged with a shank,
measuring over all 14J/2 inches. It
has a square body, and is made in
sizes ranging from 34/64-inch to
1J4 inches, with a cutting surface 7
inches long. It is cut on two sides ;
the other two are safe or uncut.
The blank is machined for the rea-
son that files for this character of
work must be absolutely true.
Another style is the valve file,
an oblong block of steel, 4 inches
long, ll/2 inches thick, with counter-
sunk screwholes for fastening on a
handle with screws.
Separate and distinct from metal-
cutting files are those adapted for
filing wood, but the latter do not
comprise anywhere near the variety
of sizes, shapes, or "cuts" as the
former. The teeth in files for wood
are widely spaced, but are not as
coarse as those for filing soft metal.
Files for Woodworking.
In woodworking there are three
shapes of files principally used, the
flat, half-round, and the cabinet.
The flat wood file is formed
on practically the same size blank
as the flat file for metal, but naturally,
owing to the softer nature and
fibrous character of wood, the teeth
for these files are larger and more
widely separated. It is double-cut
on the sides and single-cut on the
edges. This file is mainly used for
finishing after the rasp has done
the preliminary work.
The half-round wood file is the
same as a regular half-round file,
except for a difference in the "cut."
Excepting that it is somewhat
wider and thinner, the cabinet file
is similar to the half-round, with
slightly finer teeth.
Worthy of special mention in the
group of woodworking files is the 14-
inch half-round saw handle file,
with special cut.
This particular style of file was
used by some of the older men when
in England, where they learned their
trade. When these men came to this
country, they brought this file with
them. It has been used in the Disston
Works ever since.
The cut is what may be termed
"float-cut." It is widely spaced, has
very sharp cutting edges, as shown in
the illustration on page 58, and the
particular shape of the teeth makes
possible an easy, very rapid, smooth
shearing cut.
Referring again to metal-cutting
files, the comparatively new but stu-
pendous business — automobile manu-
facturing and repairing — led to the
making of a number of special files.
First among these came the spark
plug file which is similar in shape
to a manicure file. The "Kleen
Spark" is a tool which is a combina-
tion of knife and file. The end of
this file is chisel-shaped for cleaning
gummy, oiled surfaces. The mag-
neto file, and its small brother, the
midget magneto file, complete the
group.
These are used to clean spark plugs
on engines, magnetoes, ignition coils,
contacts, etc., and are of a thickness
allowing them to be used as a gauge
in obtaining the proper spacing be-
tween the points of a spark plug.
In the building of automobile bod-
ies there is a special file used termed
flexible milled shear tooth file.
This is fastened on a wood handle,
the file itself being 14 inches long, 1^
inches wide. The teeth, 10 or 12 to
the inch as required, are milled in,
making them strong and sharp.
This is used for fast filing of soft
metal.
[61]
The File In History
Entirely different in use is another
group of files, manicure files, which
need no special explanation. These
are made in a variety of styles and
sizes — the light flexible, heavy flex-
ible, files with cleaner point, with
diamond point, plain point, cutter
point, double end file with pencil
sharpener, etc.
Belonging to this group is the corn
rasp, of which mention is made fur-
ther on.
Along a somewhat similar line is
the corrugating file. These are made
in several degrees of cuts and are
used to corrugate the blades of bar-
bers' shears, to prevent the hair from
slipping when being cut
Rasps, Different
Prom Files
While always considered under the
general head of files, rasps are really
in a class of their own. The principal
difference, of course, is in the teeth,
which are detached, that is, not run in
a continuous line, and not formed
like the teeth on single and double-cut
files. As described on page 39, in-
stead of being cut with a chisel, rasp
teeth are raised with a punch. They
are much higher than the ordinary
file teeth, set well apart, and stag-
gered. In this manner they are en-
abled not only to cut uniformly, but
very quickly; each tooth taking a
larger "bite" than the ordinary file
teeth.
There are several different styles of
rasps, each used for different pur-
poses. They are all so important in
their respective lines that it would
be hard to say positively which vari-
ety takes precedence over another.
Probably the most widely used of
all rasps, however, are those for
wood. These are employed by wheel-
wrights, carriage builders, plumbers,
cabinet, saddle-tree, pattern and last
makers, gunstock makers, and fine
woodworkers generally.
Flat wood rasps are forged simi-
lar in form to the flat file. This kind
of rasp is single-cut on the edges,
with punched teeth on the sides.
The half-round wood rasp is
formed like a half-round file, but has
punched teeth on both the flat and
round sides.
The round wood rasp is used by
cabinet makers, and for other wood-
working purposes. It is round in
form, with punched teeth clear out to
the point. It is interesting to com-
pare the illustration shown of the
modern round rasp with the pictures
on page 8 of the ancient Egyptian
rasp. In the case of this particular
rasp the changes which have taken
place in the intervening thousands of
years appear to be very slight. The
round rasp is frequently used for
other kinds of wood-working in addi-
tion to cabinet work.
Another rasp for woodworking,
and intended especially for cabinet
work, is the cabinet rasp. This is
a half-round rasp, but thinner than
the regular half-round rasps and files.
This rasp is punched on both the
round and flat sides, and has the
edges single-cut.
The saddle-tree rasp is another
special half-round rasp which is used
in the manufacture of saddles. This
resembles the cabinet rasp just de-
scribed except that the teeth are
slightly larger and set a little farther
apart. The teeth are cut in rows
running obliquely across the rasp.
The edges are not cut
[62]
The File In History
Last
maker's
rasp
Flat shoe
rasp
Half round
shoe rasp
Fig. 60.
Oval
shoe rasp
•
111
Improved
shoe rasp
[63]
The File In History
The great shoe industry, one of
the largest in the world, has several
rasps made especially for its use.
The last makers' rasp is a rasp
used in the making of the lasts upon
which shoes are made. It is similar
in many respects to the cabinet rasp
described above, except that the
edges are 'very thick and not cut; and
the rows of teeth are cut on curved
lines. The flat shoe rasp has
parallel sides and square ends. The
sides only are cut. Beginning at the
center, the teeth run in opposite direc-
tions. It is used for filing the soles
of shoes.
Another rasp used for both the
soles and heels of shoes is the half-
round shoe rasp. This has punched
. teeth on half of one side and double-
cut teeth on the other half. It is also
cut on the ends. This rasp is most
in demand in the United States.
The oval shoe rasp is half-round
on one side, and slightly rounding or
bellied on the other. This affords
two surfaces of different curvature,
making them especially useful in
forming the heels on shoes, for which
work they are principally used. This
is another rasp that is cut on the
ends, but in this case the end is
beveled.
A shoe rasp that is used altogether
abroad is the improved shoe rasp.
This rasp has a shoulder at the
center, one-half being thinner than
the other. The teeth on each half
run in opposite directions.
Rasps are widely used by horse-
shoers, several patterns being made
for their special use.
The plain horse rasp is of
parallel form, single-cut on the edges,
and rasp-cut on each side with the
teeth running in opposite directions
from the center.
The tanged horse rasp is of the
same form, but has a tang on one
end, and the teeth all run in the same
direction — away from the tang. The
regular horse rasp is parallel in shape,
with one end square and the other
slightly rounded. The edges are
single-cut, while the sides are rasp-cut
on one half, and double-cut on the
other. The teeth are cut from each
end to the center.
The beveled edge horse rasp has
the teeth running in opposite direc-
tions from the center, and each half
is beveled on the opposite sides. The
edges, including the bevel, are single-
cut.
Blacksmiths — or farriers — and vet-
erinary surgeons, both use what is
called a horse-mouth rasp in dental
work on horses. This consists of a
long handle (some have a screw joint
in the center for compact carrying)
with a short rasp at the end. This
also comes in a slightly different
form known as the horse tooth file
and rasp. In this case there is an
adjustable holder at one end in which
is secured a short combination file
and rasp called a float. This float
is rasp-cut on one side and double-
cut on the other. It is held in place
by two screws.
There is another rasp which is
usually classed among manicure files.
This is the corn rasp. It is made
in various sizes from 2l/2 inches to 6
inches in length, and is very light in
weight. It is a double-end rasp, with
a curved depression on each side at
[64]
The File In History
U'lSSTQiiil
PHILA
:%%*>>:
t
'«
!A A 4 A A
m.
DISSTON
PHILA
Horse rasp,
plain
Horse rasp,
tanged
Horse rasp,
one-quarter file
Horse rasp,
beveled
Fig. 61.
[651
The File In History
Horse tooth file
and rasp with
adjustable holder
Horse tooth
rasp and
handle
Fig. 62.
Corn
rasp
[66]
The File In History
the center, where a grip is obtained
with the thumb and forefinger.
Riffler Files
The next in order are riffler files,
that is those rifflers which are given
the regular file and rasp cuts. Rif-
flers are also made with superfine
"cut," which will be taken up with
other files under that class.
Regular rifflers are usually double-
ended with curved working surfaces
14 DISSTON
Fig. 63. — Regular rifflers.
W//////////////IIIIIIIIH''1''
Fig. 64. — Gin saw flies.
Fig. 65. — Bent riffler file.
[67]
The File In History
Fig. 66. — Circular and straight files, for filing
beet shredder knives
[68]
The File In History
and a smooth center for handhold.
They are made in various lengths,
shapes, and cuts, and are generally
used on sculpture for stone and wood
carving, by toolmakers and diesinkers
for dressing indented or depressed
surfaces.
While all rifflers are bent or
curved, there is another group which
for the sake of distinction is termed
bent rifflers. These are furnished
with wood handles, as illustrated, and
are principally used for filing cavities.
They are usually furnished in sets of
six assorted shapes, either file, rasp,
or superfine cut.
In the ginning of cotton, by which
process the seeds are removed, a gang
or number of small circular saws are
used in each machine. These saws
have teeth of peculiar shape for the
sharpening of which a special pat-
tern of circular file is used. There
are a number of different machines
made for the purpose, each requiring
its own particular shaped file, of
which we illustrate three patterns.
In addition to the above there are
several patterns of straight files used
— one is knife-shaped, others triangu-
lar, or like the tapered file shown on
page 67. These are made of any
thickness or cut desired.
Another class of files is that used
in the beet sugar industry for the
sharpening of beet slicing knives or
shredders, as they are sometimes
called, which have serrated edges.
The straight files for this purpose
are made in the forms of square,
hand, and equaling— some with double
beveled edges and of special "cut."
They range from three to five inches
long and are tanged on one end.
Circular files cut on edge are also
used for sharpening of these knives
They are made of any size, thickness,
or shape of edge to suit the knives
in use.
Superfine
Files
The next division in the listing of
files comes under the head of super-
fine, by which is designated that
group having extremely fine teeth.
These include a long range of varie-
ties, running from the tiny files used
by watchmakers and jewelers — on
many of which the teeth are so fine
that the files feel almost perfectly
smooth to the hand — to the compara-
tively large and heavy files with the
superfine cut, used for finishing work
in machine shops.
They were originated in Switzer-
land or France, the records at hand
pointing more strongly to the former,
and were used especially by watch
and clock makers and by manufactur-
ers of machinery and dies for this
delicate class of work.
On page 70 are shown illustrations
of the various superfine cuts. These
begin with what is termed the No. 00
cut and run down in fineness to that
known as No. 8.
The majority of the larger super-
fine files are shaped in a manner simi-
lar to the regular files which have
[69]
The File In History
The different cuts of superfine files
No. 00
No. 0
No. 1
No. 2
No. 3
No. 4
No. 5
No. 6
No. 7
Fig. 68.
[70]
No. 8
The File In History
Flat
file
Crochet
file
Barrette
file
Fig. 69.
Slitting
file
Drill or
joint file
[71]
The File In History
Shapes of needle flies
Round
Half round
Flat
Oval
Knife
Square
Three square
Equaling
Barrette
Joint
Slitting
Marking
Fig. 70.
[72]
The File In History
Escapement files
Marking Slitting Joint BarrettelEqualing ^ ^Square Knife J^j Oval Flat Round
Pig. 71.
[73]
The File In History
been described throughout this article.
This makes it unnecessary to illus-
trate more than a few which show
slight variations from these standard
forms. The principal difference lies
in the "cut" or teeth, which can be
seen readily by comparing the illustra-
tion of superfine cuts shown here
with the standard cuts of regular files
shown on pages 37 and 38.
The flat file, it will be noticed,
differs from the shape of regular files
• by tapering to a point, which also
applies to the round, half-round,
square, etc. Other forms, such as
hand, pillar, etc., follow the regular
shapes.
A file of peculiar shape is the cro-
chet file. This has both -edges
rounded and cut, and tapers to a
point.
The barrette file is somewhat simi-
lar to the three-square file, but is
more flattened in form and is gener-
ally cut on the wide side, left safe or
uncut on the two narrow sides. This
file as well as the one above is em-
ployed for filing on any fine or close-
fitting work, like die-making.
The slitting file is diamond
shaped; that is, wide at the center and
tapering to a thin edge on both
edges.
The drill, or joint file, is parallel
in width and is furnished with either
round or square edges, as preferred.
As the name indicates, it is used for
filing drills.
These constitute the large super-
fine files and range from two to
twelve inches in length.
Needle Files
Needle files are small, slender files
from four to six and a quarter inches
in length (measured over all), and
are made in all the different forms.
Only half the length is cut, however,
the balance of the file being. formed
into a long, round tang or handle.
These little files are used for jew-
elers' work principally.
Closely following the needle files
in form and in shape of ends is the
group of escapement files. These are
usually five and one-half inches long
measured over all, and are made with
a square handle. They derive their
name because they are used chiefly
for filing the escapements for
watches and clocks.
A few additional files which are
used by clock-makers are the screw-
head file, made with or without
tang, two to four inches long; the
balance file, ratchet, right hand, and
the double-end pivot files, the latter
being made right or left "cut" and
with either sharp or conical corners.
The forms of these files will be seen
in the ilustrations, which are actual
size.
Another group of straight files is
the die sinkers'. These are similar
in form to the larger superfine files;
but are usually made in two sizes,
three, and three and a half-inches in
length, formed with a tang for
handle. They are furnished in sets
comprising the same shapes as needle
and escapement files, and in "cuts"
Nos. 0, 1, and 2. The name implies
their use.
A special file that has attained a
more or less standard form is the
[74]
The File In History
1!
Screwhead
Right hand
pivot
Balance
Ratchet
Fig. 72.
f75]
Douuie-eiid
pivot
The File In History
Special rifflers
Fig. 73.
[76]
The File In History
riffler, used by sculptors, silversmiths,
die sinkers, etc. This form consists
of a long, straight center for hand
hold, while the ends for a short dis-
tance are file cut. The chief variation
in these matters lies in the shape of
the end and size.
These are made in three sizes,
large, medium, and small. The me-
dium size is illustrated in reduced
length — the regular length for each
being six and one-half inches. They
differ only in the thickness of the
stock.
The individual types are too nu-
merous to reproduce here, but a very
good idea of the sizes and general
forms may be had by comparison of
the regular riffiers shown on page
67, which are eight inches long, with
the special rifHers, which are slender
in stock and about six and one-quar-
ter inches in length. The illustration
being about three inches less than
actual size.
Slightly longer than the above, but
considerably heavier in stock, with
more cutting surface, are the French
rifflers, the set composed mostly of
rasp-cut from fine to coarse.
Coming next in size and in greater
variety of shapes are the die sinkers'
rifflers, which are seven inches long
and somewhat heavier in stock.
Then follow the silversmiths'
rifflers. These are seven and a half
inches long and narrower on the cut-
ting ends.
There is also a form of riffler that
has but one end curved, shaped and
cut, the other end -being formed into
a tang to fit in a wood handle. This
is the style previously referred to as
the bent riffler.
The bench filing machine files
differ from the files just described in
that they are especially adapted for
use in power-driven machines.
They are made in a variety of
shapes as shown on page 78; and
with cuts Nos. 00, 0, 1, and 2.
Similar as to shapes, but longer
and wider, are the parallel machine
files, which are formed with a tang.
These are made in all "cuts."
During the late war the House of
Disston manufactured for use on
glass tubes in laboratories over fifty
thousand glass files. These files are
now a regular product. One style is
flat, 2 inches long, cut only on one
edge. Another style is 3 inches
long, 3 square with teeth cut on the
edges only.
Another group of files is the kit
for filing shoe machinery. This kit
consists of twelve blunt files, 3^2
inches long. These files are : 1 equal-
ling file with two safe edges, 1 equal-
ling file with one safe edge, 1 equal-
ling with both edges cut, a large and
a small square file, a large and a
small slitting file, one scoring file, one
screw-head file, one joint file, one
ratchet file, and one square edge
joint file.
To name the industries in which
files are used would be almost like
compiling a trade directory of the
world, for there are few that do not
need some form of file. This gives
rise, of course, to a number of special
shapes that are invented and manu-
factured to meet the peculiar needs of
some particular line of manufacture.
[77]
The File In History
Fig. 74. — Bench filing machine flies.
Barrette
Three
square
Auriform
Oval
Half
round
Round
O H
Pippin
Knife
Crochet
Pillar
Lozenge Square
It would be impossible to show all
of the various forms of special files,
and needless, too, because many are
turned out to meet certain conditions,
or as experiments.
This brings to a close the story of
the file from the time when history
first recognized its existence, down to
modern times when its use has be-
come indispensable to almost every
form of manufacturing business. Al-
though many foreign countries still
manufacture files, America long ago
took the lead in production.
In addition to using annually over
35,000 dozen files of their own manu-
facture in their saw works, handle
factory and machine shops, The
House of Disston sends enormous
quantities of their files, not only all
over this country and Canada, but
to almost every country in the
world.
[78]
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